Indus Valley Civilization

The Harappan (Indus Valley) Civilization (c. 2600–1900 BCE, mature phase) was a Bronze Age urban culture. Memory aid 'HM-DLK-RB': Harappa (River Ravi, Daya Ram Sahni, 1921), Mohenjodaro (Indus, R.D. Banerji, 1922), Dholavira (Gujarat, on Khadir island — unique water reservoirs, signboard), Lothal (Bhogava — dockyard, bead-making), Kalibangan (Ghaggar, Rajasthan — ploughed field, fire altars), Rakhigarhi (Haryana — largest Harappan site, Drishadvati). Surkotada uniquely yielded horse bones. Chanhudaro is the only site WITHOUT a citadel. The civilization extended from Sutkagendor (west, Pakistan-Iran border) to Alamgirpur (east, UP), Manda (north, J&K) to Daimabad (south, Maharashtra). Shortcut: most sites lie along the now-dry Ghaggar-Hakra (Saraswati) system, not just the Indus.

Hallmark: grid pattern with streets cutting at right angles, a Citadel (raised, west) for rulers and a Lower Town (east) for commoners. Burnt bricks in ratio 4:2:1 and the Great Bath (Mohenjodaro) reflect advanced engineering. The Granary was the largest structure at Harappa/Mohenjodaro. Economy: agriculture (wheat, barley, cotton — first to grow cotton, 'Sindon' to Greeks), trade with Mesopotamia (called 'Meluhha'), standardized weights in multiples of 16. No definitive temple or evidence of war/army has been found. The script is pictographic and undeciphered, written boustrophedon (right-to-left first line, then reverse). Society appears largely egalitarian; the script and seals (esp. Pashupati seal, unicorn seal) are key cultural markers.

No single cause is confirmed. Theories include: Aryan invasion (Wheeler — now largely discredited), climate change/aridity and drying of the Saraswati-Ghaggar river, recurrent floods (Mohenjodaro shows flood layers), tectonic shifts altering river courses, deforestation, and decline in Mesopotamian trade. Example to remember: at Mohenjodaro, layers of silt and scattered skeletons were once read as 'massacre' evidence but are now attributed to floods/disease. Continuity rather than total collapse is the modern view — the urban phase ended (~1900 BCE) but rural Late Harappan cultures persisted. For UPSC, prefer 'multi-causal/environmental' explanations over a single invasion.

Cover the answer, recall, then check. 12 cards on the must-know facts for UPSC Prelims.

Q1. Which phases and dates define the Harappan/IVC chronology?
A1. Early Harappan c. 3300–2600 BCE, Mature (urban) c. 2600–1900 BCE, Late Harappan c. 1900–1300 BCE. It is a Bronze Age civilization.

Q2. Who first excavated Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, and in which years?
A2. Harappa by Daya Ram Sahni (1921); Mohenjo-daro by R.D. Banerji (1922). Announced by John Marshall in 1924.

Q3. On which rivers do Harappa and Mohenjo-daro stand?
A3. Harappa on the Ravi; Mohenjo-daro on the Indus. Mohenjo-daro means "Mound of the Dead" in Sindhi.

Q4. Name the site with the only known dockyard, and the one with a water-management/reservoir system.
A4. Lothal (Gujarat) has the dockyard; Dholavira (Gujarat) is famed for reservoirs and a unique three-part city plan plus a signboard.

Q5. Which is the largest Indian Harappan site, and where is Rakhigarhi?
A5. Rakhigarhi (Haryana) is now regarded as the largest Harappan site; it is in Hisar district, Haryana.

Q6. What is the "Great Bath" and where is it?
A6. A large watertight brick tank at Mohenjo-daro, likely for ritual bathing; part of the citadel complex.

Q7. Describe Harappan town planning.
A7. Grid pattern; citadel (west, raised) and lower town (east); burnt-brick houses; covered drainage; standardized brick ratio 4:2:1.

Q8. What was the Harappan economy based on and what standardized system did they use?
A8. Agriculture, craft and trade; standardized weights in multiples of 16 (binary-decimal). Traded with Mesopotamia (called "Meluhha").

Q9. Which metals were known to the Harappans, and which was NOT?
A9. Copper, bronze, gold, silver, lead — but IRON was unknown (Bronze Age). Bronze "Dancing Girl" from Mohenjo-daro.

Q10. What is unusual about Harappan religion and the "Pashupati" seal?
A10. No temples found; likely worship of Mother Goddess and a proto-Shiva "Pashupati" seal (seated figure surrounded by animals). Reverence for the pipal tree and the humped bull.

Q11. What do we know about the Harappan script?
A11. Pictographic, undeciphered, written boustrophedon (right-to-left then left-to-right); about 400+ signs.

Q12. Which site is India's first Harappan UNESCO World Heritage Site, and which crop evidence comes from Kalibangan?
A12. Dholavira (inscribed 2021). Kalibangan (Rajasthan) shows the earliest ploughed field and fire altars.

Worked Example

Problem/Question: With reference to the Harappan Civilization, consider the following statements:

1. The Great Bath has been found at Mohenjo-daro.
2. Dockyard evidence for maritime trade comes from Lothal.
3. The Harappans were the earliest people in the world to produce cotton textiles.
   Which of the statements given above are correct?
   (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

Solution/Model answer:

• Statement 1: The Great Bath, a large watertight tank made of burnt brick with a bitumen lining, is one of the most famous structures at Mohenjo-daro (Sindh). Correct.
• Statement 2: Lothal (Gujarat) has a large brick structure widely interpreted as a dockyard/tidal basin, indicating maritime and riverine trade. Correct.
• Statement 3: The Harappans were among the first in the world to grow cotton and produce cotton cloth; the Greeks later called it sindon, derived from Sindh. Correct.
  All three statements are valid. Eliminate options that drop any true statement: (a) drops 3, (b) drops 1, (c) drops 2 — all wrong. Only (d) keeps all three.

Answer/Takeaway: (d) 1, 2 and 3.